History of Volleyball

History of Volleyball Dan Gould Mr. Woodmansee William G. Morgan’s â€Å"Mintonette† and it’s evolution to the popular international sport, has changed in many different ways to become the more modern day sport called, â€Å"Volleyball†. Volleyball was founded in 1895, by a man named, William G. Morgan, in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It was originally called â€Å"Mintonette†, and was meant to be a combination of Basketball, Baseball, and Handball. Also, it was designed to be a non-contact sport so that no one got hurt. There was no limit to the number of players on a team, nor was there a limit to the number of contacts on each side. The first official volleyball match was played on July 7th, 1896 at Springfield College, MA. People loved the sport, so right away it was spread across the country, and was played in most YMCA’s. The first dimensions of volleyball were very simple. The initial rules by William G. Morgan required a net which was six feet and six inches high (which was the size of an average person back then). The court, also made up by William G. Morgan, was 25 feet by 50 feet in size. Another rule was that you could have as many players as you wanted on each side. The official weight of the volleyball was no less than nine ounces, but no more than twelve ounces (it was made out of the bladder from a Basketball). Over time, most of these dimensions were changed to make the more appropriate sport called, â€Å"Volleyball†. There were several original playing rules designed for volleyball. One of the first rules was that the game consisted of nine innings. Depending on the number of players on each team,  the team would have one serve per player. After each team members serve was over, the inning would be over. The player serving continued to serve until he missed the serve or his team failed to return the ball to the other side of the net. You could only score when your team had the serve. Another rule was, if the ball hit the net, it was called a net ball, and counted as a point for the opposing team. If the ball was served into the net, it would be called a dead ball, and would count as a trial. The next rule was if a player touched the net, it would be called a net, and would result in a point for the other team. If you caught or held the ball for a couple of seconds, it would be called a carry, and would also result in a point for the other team. In 1896, (a year after the founding of Mintonette) a man by the name of Dr. Alfred T. Halstead approached William G. Morgan at the first exhibition game. He told him that a better, or a more appropriate name for the sport should be â€Å"Volley Ball†. William liked the idea, and the name stuck. In 1952, the name was officially changed, by combining the words â€Å"Volley†, and â€Å"Ball†, and making its new name, â€Å"Volleyball†. To this day the sport still has the same name. Over the years, volleyball has changed tremendously. As you know, nothing stays the same anymore. Well anyways, the court size was changed to 60 feet by 30 feet. The net was also changed too, but this time, there was a size for a women’s net and a men’s net. The women’s net was seven feet and four inches, while the men’s net was seven feet and eleven inches. Also, the rule about having as many players on the court was changed to; six players per side (no more or no less). The ball’s official size stayed with the same criteria, but mainly, it was about ten ounces. These dimensions will stay the same for a while, but some may be tweaked up a bit as the years go by. As I said, â€Å"nothing can be perfect; there is always room for a change†. Just as they did for the dimensions, they also revised some playing rules. They got rid of the nine innings, and instead, they changed it to; three out of five, games to fifteen. Also, you could still only score on your serve, but you had as many serves as you wanted. Another rule was that you could no longer hit the ball as many times as you wanted. Instead, you only could have three contacts per side, and a player could only contact the ball once, or it would result in a violation called the â€Å"two hits violation†. The last rule added was the under the net rule; if a player stepped over the line in the middle, (dividing the two teams) then it would result as a violation, and a point would be awarded to the opposing team. As volleyball began to spread around the world, there was a strong love for the sport, and some people wanted to bring the sport to the beach. Beach volleyball was founded in the 1920’s in Santa Monica, CA. It was at first played as just a recreational sport, where people could play for fun. It was played only with two people on the court, and the rules were slightly different than indoor volleyball. It became a competitive sport in California in 1947. In the sport you had to communicate and move very swiftly in order to do well. It was a great activity to play at the beach, and many people thought it was one of the coolest sports ever to be invented. Still it was practically the same sport as indoor volleyball; the only difference was that it was played on sand, and not on solid ground. Now for the dimensions of Beach Volleyball (which are completely different than indoor volleyball). The court is approximately 26 ¼ feet by 52 ½ feet long. The net on the other hand, is the same criteria as indoor volleyball, except both men and women’s nets are lowered by an inch, due to the uneven sand. Which means a women’s net would be seven feet and three inches, and the men’s would be seven feet and ten inches high. Also, the outdoor volleyball is about an inch wider than an indoor ball, but it is lighter by about two ounces (which makes it easier for the ball to come up by the players). One completely different dimension from indoor volleyball is; (not counting the court), there needs to be at least three and one fourth feet for playing space. In beach volleyball the games were still the same as indoor; Three out of five, and games to fifteen. Also in beach, you could still only score when your team had the serve, which was called â€Å"side out volleyball†. Another rule was that you could not set the ball over the net, unless if you were square to where the ball was going to land. As for the under the net call, in beach, it was only called if you went under the net and interfered with another player (in other words, you got in the players way). Some of these rules, just like indoor, still will be changing to this day. In 1942, volleyball was introduced into the Olympics, but only as an exhibition sport. It immediately was loved by all the fans, and many different countries started to develop their own teams. Finally, in the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games, volleyball became an official sport in the Olympics. It was sponsored strongly by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Beach volleyball would later on join the Olympics as well. Soon, beach volleyball took on a life of its own. In 1992, it was introduced into the Olympics as an exhibition sport. Also, just like indoor volleyball, the fans loved it, and many other countries developed teams as well too. Right away, in the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, beach volleyball became an official Olympic sport. Also, to this day, beach volleyball is thought to be the hottest ticket in the Olympics. Over the years, there have been many volleyball/beach volleyball leagues. Most of them have recently started over this century. Some examples are; AVP, FIVBA, USVBA, Junior Olympics, and AAU. These leagues are mostly for professionals. Like AVP, which is basically the NBA for basketball players, but instead for beach volleyball players. Also, the USVBA stands for United States Volleyball Association, which is basically our U.S. Olympic indoor volleyball team. Over the years so many of the rules have changed, and actually, today, they are still being changed. One major change was the introduction of the libero. It was introduced in 1998. A libero is a player that wears a different color shirt than the rest of the team, and they are basically defensive specialists. At any time during the game, if anyone needed to be taken out of the back row, they could be switched with the libero, but it would not count as a substitution. The only twist was that the libero was not allowed to play in the front row. One other rule that was switched was the side out rule, the rule was changed so that you don’t have to win the point on your serve, but you could also get a point on the opposing teams serve. Lastly, the games were changed to three out of five, games to twenty-five. In beach volleyball, the games were also three out of five, but the games were to twenty-one. In worldwide popularity, volleyball is the second most popular sport in the world, the first being soccer. With about 46 million Americans that play, and over 800 million people that play around the world, it is obvious that volleyball touches lives. Volleyball has definitely grown to be the best team sport there will ever be. The reason for this is because there cannot just be one star player on the team but, there has to be at least three contacts from at least two different players. References Crisfield, Deborah, and John J. Monteleone. Winning Volleyball for Girls. New York: Chelsea House, 2010. Print. Dearing, Joel B. The Untold Story of William G. Morgan Inventor of Volleyball. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. February 9th: William G. Morgan Invents a Game Called Mintonette That Is Better Known Today as Volleyball. Today I Found Out RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . Ghare, Madhavi. Volleyball: History, Court and Equipment. Buzzle.com. Buzzle.com, 17 Dec. 2007. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . History Behind Volleyball Discovering Volleyball in 1950-80. History Behind Volleyball. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . Kenny, Bonnie, and Cindy Gregory. Volleyball: Steps to Success. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2006. Print Volleyball History 101. About.com Volleyball. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Nov. 2013. . Volleyball Rules 1897. Volleyball Rules 1897. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . VOLLEYBALL COURT DIMENSIONS. VOLLEYBALL COURT DIMENSIONS. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. .

Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay

1. IntroductionThe fact that competence degrees attained by 2nd linguistic communication scholars fluctuate so greatly ( Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 53 ) , raises an challenging inquiry with respects to 2nd linguistic communication acquisition ( SLA ) , why are some persons better at geting linguistic communication than others? A major ground for this fluctuation in L2 proficiency degrees is normally attributed to single scholar differences ( ILDs ) , ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2005: 2 ) . This essay sets out to explicate the of import function that ILDs play in SLA, through an in-depth treatment on the part made by L2 motive. Three influential theories offering different positions on L2 motive: the Socio-educational theoretical account, self-government theory and the Process theoretical account will be discussed in item. I will besides look at the theoretical displacements presently taking topographic point in L2 motive research, before reasoning with a treatment on the schemes that instructors can utilize to instil and nurture motive in their pupils.2. Role of ILDs in SLAIndividual differences are alone larning features which are present in all scholars to changing grades. They can assist to separate acquisition demands and place the extent to which scholars will win in geting a 2nd linguistic communication ( Lightbown and Spada, 2006 ) . These differences are societal, cognitive and affectional in nature, and include aptitude, motive, age, personality, larning schem es, larning manners and anxiousness ( for detailed reappraisals, see for illustration, Naiman et al 1995 ; Skehan 1989 ; D & A ; ouml ; rnyei 2005 ) . Their relevancy to linguistic communication accomplishment has made ILDs, a focal point of considerable attending in SLA research ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2005 ) . Developments in research, particularly in relation to aptitude and motive, has seen a displacement from a product-orientated attack to a more process-orientated stance ( ibid: 6 ) . Recent surveies have highlighted the importance of the temporal nature and situational context of scholar features ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009 ) . Current statements nevertheless, have suggested that instead than being massive variables, ILDs are complex properties dwelling of a combination of sub-components and sub-processes ( ibid ) . All ILDs are implicated in linguistic communication acquisition, nevertheless they do non work in isolation and some even have elements in common ( Gardner, 2008 ) . A expression at some of the influential theories which have emerged from research on L2 motive over the last 50 old ages will assist to explicate the complex function that ILDs can play in the linguistic communication larning procedure.3. L2 MotivationMotivation is a scholars ‘ orientation towards larning ends ( Gardner, 1985 ) , and is regarded by many as the most influential ILD in the linguistic communication larning procedure ( Ellis, 1985 ) . Therefore its relevancy to the schoolroom environment becomes apparent, and to cognize what drives this motive is of great pedagogic involvement. Many of the scholar features involved in the SLA procedure are dependent on, and in some instances wholly overridden by motive ( Gardner, 2006 ) . A scholar with a natural aptitude for larning linguistic communications, for illustration, may happen it hard to achieve long-run linguistic communication ends without the necessary motive ( ibid ) . On the other manus, high degrees of motive may take to successful acquisition, even where small aptitude exists for linguistic communication ( ibid ) . Theories looking to explicate the function of motive in linguistic communication acquisition have evolved through four chief phases. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei ( 2005 ) categorises these as: the Social Psychological period ( 1959-1990 ) ; the Cognitive-Situated period ( 1990 ‘s ) ; the Process-orientated phase ( late 1990 ‘s ) ; and eventually a period ( last decennary ) consisting of new attacks that have focused on a scholars sense of self-identity. Table 1 summarises the chief L2 motive theories and constructs.3.1. The Social Psychological attack to L2 motiveInterest in L2 motive was initiated by societal psychologists Wallace Lambert, Robert Gardner and associates every bit early as 1959, looking to understand the linguistic communication and culturalApproach to motiveExamplesSocial-psychologicalSocio-educational theoretical account, ( Gardner, 1985 ) .Cardinal constructs: Integrative motive, Integrativeness, integrative orientation.Theory of Linguistic assurance, ( Clement , 1986 ) .Cardinal constructs: Self-confidence – a self-belief of holding the ability to pull off the acquisition procedure. Cognitive – SituatedSelf-determination theory, ( Brown, 1994 ; Noels et al. , 2000 ) .Cardinal constructs: intrinsic/extrinsic motive, amotivation.Attribution theory, ( Weiner, 1992 ) .Cardinal constructs: imputing past success or failure to current actions.Goal puting theory, ( Oxford and Shearin, 1994 ) .Cardinal constructs: Cognitive perceptual experience of ends as a motivation factor.Goal orientation theory, ( Ames, 1992 ) .Cardinal constructs: Goal command andperformance orientations.Motivation and scholar scheme usage, ( Oxford and Nyikos ; 1989, Macintyre et al. , 1996 ) .Cardinal constructs: Motivation as a cardinal factor in exciting scheme usage.Task Motivation, ( Julkunen, 2001 ; Dornyei, 2003 ) .Cardinal constructs: undertaking executing, assessment, action control. Assorted attackI. Willingness to pass on, ( Macintyre et al. , 1998, 2003 ) .Cardinal constructs: Willingness to pass on as a cardinal factor for accomplishing communicative competence. Process-orientatedProcess theoretical account, ( Dornyei and Otto, 1998 ; Dornyei, 2001b ) .Cardinal constructs: temporal nature of motive, which includes a preactional/actional/postactional phase. Current and futureL2 motivational ego system, ( Dornyei, 2005 ) .Cardinal constructs: ideal L2 ego, ought-to L2 ego.Complex dynamic systems, ( Larsen-Freeman, 2007 ) .Cardinal constructs: incorporating different theoretical positions.Table 1. Some of the different attacks used in L2 motive researchstruggles between English and Gallic speech production communities in Canada. Their research adopted a socio-psychological attack, based on the cardinal thought that a scholar ‘s success in geting a 2nd linguistic communication is dictated by an attitude towards the mark linguistic communication community ( Gardner, 1985 ) . Their research on pupils larning Gallic showed that aptitude and motive are closely associated with accomplishment in linguistic communication acquisition ( ibid ) . They concluded that motive is characterised by an person ‘s willingness to be like members of the mark community ( ibid ) . A theoretical account based on a socio-psychological attack that has been really influential in L2 motive research is Gardner ‘s socio-educational theoretical account ( see for illustration, Gardner and Lambert, 1972 ; Gardner, 1985 ; Gardner and MacIntyre, 1991 ) . The most recent version of this theoretical account is shown in figure 1.LANGUAGE ACHIEVMENTOther Factors( for illustration, Learning schemes, linguistic communication ANXIETY ( Gardner, 2001 ) )Other SupportLANGUAGE APTITUDEINTEGRATIVE MOTIVATIONINTEGRATIVENESSMotivationATTITUDE TOWARDS THE LEARNING SIITUATIONFigure 1. A basic theoretical account of the function of motive in SLA ( adapted from Gardner ( 2001b ) ) .The most luxuriant and researched facet of Gardner ‘s theoretical account is ‘integrative motive ‘ , which he defines as the motive to larn a L2 because of a positive attitude towards, and a desire to incorporate with that community ( Gardner, 2001b ) . The three variables that constitut e integrative motive are ( ibid ) : Integrativeness – this represents a desire to larn a 2nd linguistic communication to place with the mark community, and is reflected in a scholar ‘s behavior through the followers: An integrative orientation, stand foring the ground for acquisition, which in this instance is an involvement in larning an L2 to interact with the mark community. A positive attitude towards the mark linguistic communication group. An involvement in foreign linguistic communications or a general openness to all linguistic communication groups. Attitudes towards the acquisition state of affairs ( ATLS ) – this refers to attitudes towards the linguistic communication instructor, the class in general, the class stuffs and other factors related to the larning context. Motivation – this is a scholar ‘s end driven behaviour. A motivated scholar: makes a conjunct attempt to larn a linguistic communication, for illustration by making excess work and seeking more learning chances, displays a strong desire to larn a linguistic communication and is focused on accomplishing the end, enjoys acquisition and has an overall positive attitude towards the acquisition procedure. An integratively motivated scholar is hence: motivated to larn a 2nd linguistic communication, lament to interact and be associated with the mark community, and has a positive mentality on the learning state of affairs. To prolong consistent degrees of motive, integrativeness and/or a positive ATLS are indispensable features, nevertheless, it is the motive component of the ‘Integrative Motivation ‘ composite that is the active variable and which straight influences ‘Language Achievement ‘ ( Gardner, 2001b: 6 ) . Therefore, a scholar who has a high degree of integrativeness and/or a positive attitude towards larning, but is low in motive is improbable to accomplish high degrees of proficiency. The affect of instrumental factors on L2 motive was non included in Gardner ‘s nucleus theory, but he suggests that they could be one of the ‘other supports ‘ impacting motive ( Gardner, 2001a: 7 ) . Based on this, it is possible to replace integrativeness with instrumentality in the representation of the theoretical account in figure 1, to give what Gardner calls ‘Instrumental Motivation ‘ ( ibid ) . This is a motive to larn a L2 for instrumental additions, such as better employment or instruction. An instrumentally motivated scholar has specific communicative demands, which provide a intent for larning and an drift for successful linguistic communication acquisition ( Gardner and Lambert, 1972 ) . Gardner ‘s theoretical account makes small mention to other properties, for illustration, personal aspirations and past experiences, which could impact an integratively motivated scholar. However, empirical research in different contexts is continuously conveying to illume the possibility of including more factors in the general L2 motivational concept. To look into Gardner ‘s theoretical account for adaptability, Tremblay and Gardner ( 1995 ) integrated other measurings of motive, such as anxiousness and goal-setting schemes. Empirical testing of the drawn-out theoretical account showed that add-on of the excess variables did non impact the construction of the original theoretical account ( ibid ) . Research on motive in different context has led some applied linguists to propose the impression of the linguistic communication community associated with integrative motive is indefensible for international scholars of English ( Ushioda and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009 ) . In a multi-lingual society like China, for illustration, few chances exist for interacting with native English communities. In such a context, instrumental motive or external factors ( for illustration, tests and employment ) are more prevailing among scholars than a desire for incorporating with native talkers of English ( Warden and Lin, 2008 ) . For this ground, other research workers have suggested that the integrative concept should at least be re-examined by including the planetary L2 larning context and the multi-dimensionality of a scholar ‘s individuality. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Csizer, ( 2002 ) suggested that instead than placing with an external linguistic communication community, the integrative construct could be more accurately linked to a scholar ‘s internal procedure of designation with a self-concept. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei ‘s ( 2005 ) motivational self-system which developed from this thought is discussed in subdivision 3.4.3.2. Self-government Theory and SLAInfluenced by progresss in motivational psychological science, and a demand to understand the classroom-situated nature of motive, L2 research moved on from a socio-psychological attack, to look at affects of classroom-situated factors on motive. Self-government theory ( SDT ) is a extremely influential attack in motivational psychological science, and several surveies have attempted to integrate some of its constituents to explicate L2 motive ( for illustration, Brown, 1994 ; Noels et al. , 2000 ) . Harmonizing to this theory there are three types of scholar motives: intrinsic motive, extrinsic motive, and amotivation ( Deci and Ryan, 2002 ) . These motives form a continuum depending on the grade of scholar self-government, where self-government is as an person ‘s sense of pick and control over the learning procedure ( ibid ) . Intrinsic Motivation ( IM ) refers to an person ‘s motive to set about an activity, strictly for personal feelings of pleasance and enjoyment associated with that activity, and is driven by a desire for competency and self-government ( Noel et al. , 2000 ) . Intrinsically motivated pupils are considered more likely to accomplish liberty, competency and fulfil long-run linguistic communication ends ( Ramage, 1990 ) . Extrinsic motive ( EM ) , on the other manus, relates to actions carried out for: instrumental additions, in hunt for wages or to avoid penalty ( Noels et al. , 2000 ) . This motive can change in degree depending on the extent to which the activity is controlled by the scholar or other variables ( Deci and Ryan, 2002 ) . Vallerand et al. , ( 1993 ) have suggested six subtypes of IM and EM which lie on a continuum of self-government ( see table 2 ) . Christmass ( 2001 ) suggests that L2 learner motive can be assessed utilizing the intrinsic and extrinsic concepts. These motives nevertheless, do non needfully hold to be sole, for illustration, a scholar whose behavior is consistent with ‘identified ordinance ‘ may besides exhibit some of the next motives on the continuum ( ibid ) .Self-governmentType of MotivationDescriptionHigh Nothing Intrinsic Motivation to cognize Performing an activity for the pleasance associated with acquisition or researching new cognition. E.g. , when reading a new book. Intrinsic Motivation to carry through Performing an activity for the pleasance associated with carry throughing or making something. E.g. , a pupil making more prep than is required. Intrinsic Motivation to see stimulation Performing an activity for the stirred esthesiss ( e.g. pleasance and exhilaration ) associated with battle with the activity. E.g. , a pupil who goes to category for the pleasance of take parting in treatments. Extrinsic Motivation – Identified Regulation Extrinsic motive is internalised to the extent that learner behavior is regulated by a sense of value and utility of the activity to the ego. E.g. , a pupil who surveies the dark before an test because they think it is of import to them. Extrinsic Motivation – Introjected Regulation Learner behavior is regulated by internalization of past external agencies. E.g. , analyzing the dark before an test because it is expected of a good pupil. Extrinsic Motivation – External Regulation Learner behavior is regulated wholly by external agencies ( wagess or restraints ) – demoing the least self-determined signifier of extrinsic motive. E.g. , Analyzing the dark before an test because of force per unit area from parents. Amotivation A deficiency of extrinsic and intrinsic motive. A scholar feels their behavior is regulated by factors out of their control, and may finally drop out of the acquisition procedure.Table 2. Language Learning Orientation Scale: Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation and Amotivation ( adapted from Vallerand et al. , ( 1993 ) ) .Intrinsic motive is characterised by a strong sense of self-government, and is closely associated with integrative motive ( Noels, 2001 ) . This suggests that pupils larning a linguistic communication for pleasance may besides be seeking interaction with the L2 community. Intrinsic motive nevertheless, is identified more with attitudes towards larning, than the mark community ( ibid: 54 ) . The societal environment ( for illustration, the instructor, household members and the L2 community ) has considerable influence on a pupil ‘s perceptual experience of self-government. A instructor plays a important function in this respect, and can advance intrinsic motive by promoting learner liberty and supplying positive feedback ( Noels, 2000: 55 ) . Similarly, pupils larning for intrinsic grounds are more sensitive to the instructor ‘s instructional manner ( ibid ) . In contrast, the less self-determined external ordinance constituent of extrinsic motive is linked to instrumental behavior ( Noels, 2001: 53 ) . A restriction of extrinsic behavior is that it can hold short-run features. A survey carried out by Ramage ( 1990 ) showed that pupils who learnt a linguistic communication for academic grounds are more likely to stop future linguistic communication categories. Extrinsic class force per unit areas, for illustration, compulsory reading, can besides negatively impact a scholar ‘s intrinsic involvements ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 1994a ) .3.3. A Process-orientated attack to motiveD & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Otto ‘s ( 1998 ) procedure theoretical account of motive integrates assorted theoretical positions of L2 motive, and draws attending to the temporal nature of motive in schoolroom acquisition. The theoretical account is influenced by Heckhausen and Kuhl ‘s Action control theory, which proposes two consecutive stages of motivatio nal behavior: an person ‘s motive to organize an attending, and a motive to originate and prolong the intended action ( Heckhausen, 1991 ) . D & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Otto ‘s theoretical account interruptions down the motivational procedure into three temporal stages. The first relates to the transmutation of initial desires to ends, and so purposes. The following sees these purposes being enacted, taking to the successful/unsuccessful achievement of ends, and the concluding stage is an overall rating of the acquisition procedure ( see figure 2 ) .Preactional Phase( Choice Motivation )Motivational Functions: generate motive to choose a end ; organize an purpose to move ; choose an action program to ordain the purpose. Possible factors act uponing motive: end belongingss ; attitude towards the acquisition procedure ; attitude towards the mark community ; perceptual experience of self-ability ; societal environmental encouragement or disheartenment.Actional Phase( Executive Motivation )Motivational Functions: transport out sub-tasks to keep motive ; ongoing assessment of accomplishment ; action control ( self-regulation to assist persist with larning ) . Possible factors act uponing motive: quality of the learning experience ; grade of liberty ; teacher, learner group and household influence/support ; schoolroom construction ( competitory or co-operative ) ; cognition and ability to utilize self-motivating, goal-setting and learning schemes.Postactional Phase( Motivational Retrospection )Motivational Functions: property grounds to success or failure ; elaborate internal criterions and action-specific schemes ; disregard original purpose and farther planning. Possible factors act uponing motive: personal ascription manner ; assurance ; feedback.Figure 2. Process theoretical account of L2 larning motive ( adapted from Dornyei, ( 2003: 19 ) ) .An of import averment made by the process-orientated theoretical account is that motivational behavior is influenced by different factors. Consequently, different theories of motive can be associated with each stage ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2003: 18 ) . Integrativeness, for illustration, may be the motivational influence on end scene in the preactional phase. In the executive stage, situated facets of motive drama a greater function, mechanisms of the undertaking processing system are more relevant here ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2003 ) . The retrospective links that scholars make between the original end and existent accomplishment in the post-actional phase are likely to be attributed to past acquisition experiences, a motivational behavior addressed by Weiner ( 1992 ) in the ascription theory. Two facets that the theoretical account overlooks are: the possibility of several actional procedures running at the same time, or an actional procedure with multiple motivational influences ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2003 ) . This is likely in a school scene, where pupils frequently have multiple ends ( for illustration, societal and academic ) and overlapping motivational influences ( for illustration, undertaking, class or course of study related ) ( ibid ) . The theoretical account assumes that the actional procedures have defined boundaries, nevertheless in an educational context it may be hard to place where one actional procedure starts and the following Begins.3.4. Present and future: The motivational self-system and a Dynamic systems attack.Since the socio-psychological period of motive research, the planetary world of English has changed vastly. The rapid globalization of English has challenged the cogency of many SLA theories ( Kachru, 1988 ) , because these theories fail to see the context of the universe Englishes scholar ( Sridhar and Sridhar, 1992 ) . With limited or no contact opportunities with the native mark community, the impression of a ‘self-concept ‘ ( mentioning to an person ‘s images and knowledges of the ego ) suggested by D & A ; ouml ; rnyei and Csizer ( 2002 ) , is perchance a more relevant motivational characteristic in many EFL contexts. D & A ; ouml ; rnyei developed this thought farther, in his L2 motivational self-system, which equated integrativeness with an ‘ideal L2 ego ‘ ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2005 ; 2010 ) . The chief constituents of this system are: ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2010 ) ‘Ideal L2 Self ‘ – a L2-specific image of the properties that one would wish to possess. For illustration, hopes, desires, aspirations. ‘Ought-to L2 Self ‘ – a self-guide which refers to those properties one thinks one ought to possess to run into outlooks and avoid negative results. ‘L2 Learning Experience ‘ – this refers to the executive motivations ( similar to those identified in the Process theoretical account ) associated with the immediate acquisition environment and experience. For illustration, impact of the instructor, other scholars, the class, the experience of success. The hypothesis behind the self-system is that a scholars desire to go a individual proficient in the L2, serves as a powerful actuating force to larn a linguistic communication ( Ushioda and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009: 3-4 ) . A recent survey in the Nipponese context showed that this desire represented by the ideal L2 ego is tantamount to the construct of integrativeness in Gardner ‘s socio-educational theoretical account, but the ideal L2 ego is likely more accurate in explicating motivated behavior ( Ryan, 2009 ) D & A ; ouml ; rnyei ‘s thought of puting the ‘self ‘ at the Centre of the conceptual function of motive offers a new position, nevertheless it overlooks the process-orientated, and contextually dynamic nature of motive. Justifying this complex nature of L2 motive, can merely be possible by incorporating more than one attack ( Macintyre et al. , 2010 ) . A possibility of uniting different positions of motive is suggested by Ushioda ( 2009 ) with her person-in-context, relational position of emergent motive. She suggests that incorporating relevant theoretical models to back up future analysis of the complex nature of interactive procedures and contextual factors in motivational behavior can assist to supply a better apprehension of how L2 motive is shaped ( ibid ) . A similar possibility is offered by the theoretical paradigms of dynamic systems theory ( for a elaborate reappraisal, see Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008 ) . This theory involves a survey of systems, where the system is analysed as a whole instead than as its single parts ( ibid ) . Learner fluctuation is seen as the consequence of a complex system of relevant factors working in unison, instead than as a consequence of differences in single determiners ( for illustration, aptitude or motive ) ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2009 ) . As an illustration of an application of a dynamic systems attack to L2 acquisition, D & A ; ouml ; rnyei suggests the possibility of placing an optimum combination of motivational, cognitive and affectional factors with respect to task behavior, that map as an incorporate unit ( for a elaborate reappraisal see, ibid ) .4. The practical value of theory – motivational schemes for the schoolroomChomsky ( 1988 ) emphasises the critical function played by ins tructors in scholar motive by proposing that 90 nine per cent of learning involves acquiring pupils interested in larning. A linguistic communication instructor ‘s motivational pattern is besides linked straight to increased degrees of scholar motive ( Guilloteaux and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2008 ) . Therefore, the demand to utilize appropriate schemes to pull off schoolroom motive is highly relevant to L2 practicians. Motivational schemes are techniques used by a instructor to pull off learner motive, or used by single scholars to modulate their ain motive degrees ( Guilloteaux and D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2008 ) . Although, several motive schemes have been proposed in L2 literature ( for illustration, Williams and Burden, 1997 ; D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2001a ; Alison and Halliwell, 2002 ) , really few are supported by empirical grounds. Self-motivating schemes for scholars are an even less researched country of L2 motive ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2006 ) . An illustration of an luxuriant, theory-based model which looks at motivational schemes from both a instructor and leaner position is proposed by D & A ; ouml ; rnyei ( 2001a ) . This theoretical account consists of four stages ( ibid ) : Making the basic motivational status, by set uping a good student-teacher relationship, a relaxed acquisition atmosphere and a cohesive scholar group. Generating initial motive by: Strengthening linguistic communication related values and attitudes ( intrinsic, integrative or instrumental values ) . Increasing the anticipation of success. Increasing goal-orientedness, for illustration, by doing scholars cognizant of the practical ( non-syllabus related ) grounds or value of making an activity. Making learning stuffs relevant. Making realistic scholar beliefs. Many new scholars have inaccurate beliefs about linguistic communication acquisition, a realization of their falsity can hold a demotivating influence. Keeping and protecting motive, to maintain sight of ends, and keep involvement and concentration. The most relevant schemes in this stage include: Making the acquisition procedure stimulating and interesting. Showing undertakings in a motivation mode, doing them exciting and relevant. Puting specific scholar ends. Continuing the scholar ‘s self-esteem and advancing their assurance. Making scholar liberty. Promoting self-motivating scholar schemes in order to: Continue the original end committedness, for illustration, by promoting scholars to retrieve favorable outlooks or positive wagess. Maintain concentration, for illustration, by promoting scholars to: place and pull off distractions ; and concentrate on the first stairss to take when get downing an activity. Eliminate ennui and add excess involvement in a undertaking, for illustration, by demoing scholars how to add a turn to a undertaking and utilizing their imaginativeness to do it more stimulating. Manage riotous emotions and bring forth a positive emotional province, for illustration, by acquiring pupils to self-encourage and presenting them to relaxation techniques. Remove negative and utilise positive environmental influences, for illustration, by promoting pupils to take distractions and inquiring for equal aid. Promoting positive retrospective self-evaluation, by: Promoting positive scholar ascriptions ( an thought supported by the Attribution theory, Weiner, 1992 ) Supplying motivational feedback, that is enlightening and encouraging. This can assist to increase learner satisfaction and assurance, and encourages constructive self-reflection on failings. Using wagess and classs carefully, as they can deflect the scholar from the existent intent of the undertaking ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2006:730 ) . When they are used, they should be offered in a motivational mode. The most motivation of instructors are considered to be those who rely on a few simple and carefully selected techniques ( D & A ; ouml ; rnyei, 2006: 730-731 ) . Therefore, accomplishing optimum degrees of scholar motive are more likely if motivational schemes are matched by a instructor selectively, to scholars ‘ specific demands.5. DecisionThis essay discussed the important function that motive, as an illustration of an ILD variable, plays in the long and backbreaking undertaking of 2nd linguistic communication acquisition. I presented three influential theories that have approached L2 motive from different positions, and looked at some of the current tendencies in motivational research. A expression at some possible motivational schemes demonstrated how theoretical constructs can be applied to better the quality of schoolroom acquisition. The motivational features of the L2 scholar highlight the complex but influential function played by ILDs in SLA. Many of the variables involved in L2 motive have a grade of convergence, and interact both with each other and other ILDs ( Gardner, 2008 ) . In order to understand the true nature of these webs of interactions and their affect on L2 accomplishment, the possibilities offered by a dynamic systems attack is likely the best manner frontward.

About Me Essay - What Is It?

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Empowering The Civil War Through Telegraphy - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2518 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/05/23 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Civil War Essay War Essay Did you like this example? The American Civil War is the bloodiest and deadliest war the United States ever encountered. It is said that there were more American casualties in the Civil War than all other wars that the United States have fought in combined. Although deadly, the Civil War was also one of the most significant wars that brought about change and sparked the forthcoming of a new age of technology. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Empowering The Civil War Through Telegraphy" essay for you Create order The desire to produce more advanced systems and weaponry lead to the beginnings of modern technology and war tactics. However, this advancing age was not fully supported on both fronts of the war, which ultimately became the downfall for either side in major battles. Yet, the most influential forms of technology that transformed the United States was the advent of improved communication systems across the country. The Civil War exemplifies the impact that these communication networks had on military strategy, general politics and human rights, and regulations on communications. One of the main communications networks that revolutionized the American Civil War was telegraphy. Due to the development of the battery by Italian physicist, Alessandro Volta in 1800 and the connection between electricity and magnetism by Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted in 1820, long-distance communication via telegraphy was first developed during the 1840s and 1850s by Samuel Morse, Leonard Gale, and Alfred Vail. Morses single-circuit telegraph functioned by pushing the operator key down to complete the electric circuit of the battery, allowing for an electric signal to be transmitted across a wire to a receiver at the other end. However, these are just signals that are being transmitted, not words or letters. Therefore, Samuel Morse developed the Morse code that translates letters in the alphabet with a number of dots and dashes. Originally, the first telegraph rendered the signals as marks on a paper, where short marks are dots and long marks are dashes, but operators soon became in tune with the code that the telegraph was innovated to produce beeping sounds to correlate with the dots and dashes. In turn, these messages can reach hundreds of miles and still be received within a matter of seconds. From Samuel Morses first telegraph message in 1844 from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore, Maryland, the telegraph lines were able to stretch across the Atlantic Ocean to communicate between the United States and Europe in 1866. Although telegraph lines were strewn across the nation to communicate over long distances, the incorporation of the telegraph lines was not entirely utilized to its full potential until a year after the war started. The scope that telegraphy can have on military strategy was discovered and both sides of the war began setting up their own telegraph lines in order to provide secure networks to communicate between generals and Washington. These lines became a valuable resource for commanders as it allowed the spread of supplies, manpower, and information at speeds unimaginable prior to the war. If these lines were damaged or cut off, then other means of communication were required such as mail. However, there were only a few modes of transportation to deliver these messages. The quickest form of transportation would have been by railroad, but what a message that could be sent in a matter of minutes by telegraph would take hours if delivered by train. Yet, these networks of transportation became unreliable later in the war when rail networks became damaged and derailed, leading to deliver by carriage or on foot, which took exponentially more time to send information. However, this form of targeting communication outlets was a strategic move in launching a siege on communication networks that helped put a lid on isolated enemy encampments from calling out for support. Therefore, it was overall essential to protect the telegraph lines to ensure that these delays did not bring about major implications for battle plans and resourcing commanders and their troops. Moreover, who were those that manned these telegraphy stations? One would be surprised that it was civilians who manned and operated the telegraphs for the Union Army. These civilians made up the United States Military Telegraph Corps. The Telegraph Corps was initiated during the first couple days of the Civil War by Secretary of War Simon Cameron who sought the help of Thomas A. Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad to gather men who will begin to establish an official network of telegraph lines for military purposes. Scott appointed Andrew Carnegie to extend rail networks to allow for the construction of telegraph lines to the Virginia territory. Additionally, Scott sought out telegraph operators David Strouse, D.H. Bates, Samuel M. Brown, and Richard OBrien to manage the telegraph networks at the War Department, Navy Yard, and Baltimore Ohio Railroad depot, all locations of critical army headquarters. With these men lead to the incorporation of over 1500 men into the U.S. Military T elegraph Corps, which became a crucial force for the Union army. Many stories account the heroic and valiant efforts that these operators went through in order to ensure that messages were sent. Some operators were still sending one final order by telegraph while there were fighting and gunfire exploding just outside the telegraph office. Some of these operators understood the impact that their job had on the outcome of the war and was courageous enough to risk their lives to get the job done. These civilians are the sole resource that the Union Army can attribute its success in the war as the importance of information was a critical point in battles yet to come. Conversely, there were many issues that hindered the Union army due to the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps. Since the Telegraph Corps was solely run by civilians, the military commanders had no authority to discipline these civilians if they became cowardly, which occurred quite often. Many great generals, like General Ulysses S. Grant, had to deal with their operators abandoning their proximity to the main army encampment to remain safe a couple of miles away, where they are practically useless. This poses a great disadvantage if these generals needed to send a vital message immediately in order to receive supplies or manpower during a decisive battle. Instead, messengers had to be sent on horseback to these operator stations, wasting precious minutes for the general. This caused many of the generals to distrust many of the operators that they were assigned with. Additionally, since there was no government organization for telegraphs prior to the Civil War, there were no funds to cover the costs of constructing telegraph poles or the salaries of operators. Therefore, Edward S. Sanford of the American Telegraph Company had to pay for all these expenses for the first six months of the war. However, many of the telegraph operators were not receiving high enough salaries and would not receive a pension for their services since they were not members of the military, so they used their position as telegraph operators to run separate operations of transmitting private messages for people that were willing to pay for a certain price. This lead to many of the operators prioritizing the private messages instead of sending commands and intel for the military. This became a major threat to military generals as sometimes their messages were later sent out of order or sent a couple a days after they were initially inscribed, deepening the distrust generals had for telegraph operators throughout the war. Overall, telegraph operators played a crucial role in the development of the war but were not always trusted as a functional branch of the war due to the lack of discipline that existed within the United States Military Telegraph Corps. Additionally, telegraphy sparked the beginnings of the modern era of cryptography. During the Civil War, the telegraph lines were a vital instrument of communication that needed to be constantly extended further or retreated depending on the advances of each front. Due to the constant back and forth, both sides went through throughout the war, many of these lines were out in plain sight for the opposing side to hijack. After hijacking these communication networks, the enemy may intercept important intel on the opponents resources, encampment locations, and possibly battle plans. This access to information becomes a major threat for the other side, so to combat this vulnerability, both the Union and Confederacy developed their own ciphers for telegraphic communication. With these cipher patterns, both sides can mask their messages with unintelligible text. However, if one is able to come up with a cipher, another can easily decipher the message as well. Therefore, both sides consistently updated and complicated various texts to prevent the opposing side from having a chance at deciphering the messages. For example, the Union Army encoded their telegrams by laying out the message on a grid of a ledger book and scrambling the words in a particular order. The encryption was separated into three parts: arbitraries, null words, and routing instructions. Arbitraries were words or punctuations that were commonly replaced with other words in a message, where there were hundreds of different arbitraries, making the code practically undecipherable. Then null words are random words added to the ends of lines of the message just to confuse anyone that may try to intercept the telegram. Finally, routing instructions explained how to rewrite the message in the correct order for the telegraph operator. These three parts combined helped protect the secrecy of Union information from the hands of the Confederate Army. Furthermore, the military was not the only source that utilized telegraphs, but the public also caught on to the advantages that telegraphs had in contacting people or spreading information. This lead to the spread of telegraph stations popping all over the United States, preferably near public newspaper publications to update citizens on important news during the war. These stations became an essential source of informing the public, causing large crowds to congregate these places in order to be informed of these important events. Therefore, a wave of people began moving closer to these major cities, causing an influx in urban population. Furthermore, the Civil War became to be a hot topic in many communities where previously people had nothing to really discuss other than business and politics. With the war, now societies had a chance to voice their opinions on the cruelty of war, the death count that begins to pile up as the war continue, and various morbid topics regarding the war. Personally, I believe that American society on both sides of the war enjoyed discussing these cynical topics in order to mask the dark nature when themselves. In turn, that is why rumors began to spring up across the nation about certain battles or leaders during the war. Once full of to brim of all sorts of rumors about the war, people felt inclined to report them to newspaper companies or people across the nation, leading to the use of telegraphs to spread such information. Consequently, both sides of the war now have different sources of true and false information coming from military commanders and from public news stations, causing conflicting views of major events that occurred. Both Lincoln and Davis were infuriated over such implications and developed methods of controlling the public to prevent such information from escaping out to the opposing side. Lincoln begins a war on telegraphy and sets up rules and regulations to monitor the network in the North to bring an end to misinformation or the spreading of information that the public is not ready to witness. Lincoln firsts initialize a censorship on any mention of military movements from public outlets, such as newspapers and telegraphy offices, unless otherwise permitted. This attempt to censor the public is effective by ensuring that the opposing side does not discover battle plans of northern generals, which may cause a major defeat for the North. The Confederacy had a strict censorship progra m throughout the beginning of the war, consequently allowing them to be quite successful in many of the early battles of the Civil War. However, as the war came close to an end, the Confederate government began to lose control of its censorship program and lead to its ultimate demise in 1865. Moreover, the censor deters panic and chaos to occur depending on what material is presented for the public. However, the censorship also poses a question on whether the government should put limitations on speech and the press. The Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution protects all of its citizens to the freedom of speech and freedom of the press, but during times of war, the president can limit these freedoms to protect its country from certain threats. Yet, there was no strict enforcer in ensuring newspaper and telegraph companies abide by these censorship laws and guidelines in the Union, so many companies continued to issue reports that went against the censorship. Therefore, Lincoln enacted the Military Telegraphy Department in order to tap into telegraph lines and prevent any messages that may threaten the United States military in some shape or fashion. Accordingly, many telegraph stations and news companies opposed the new department as they struggled to publish material that would gather the publics attention. Every attempt these companies took to send out these stories via telegraphy would immediately be stopped by those in the department and were forced to give up the material. This lead to two options for the news organizations, either produce more objective and factual reports about the war or send reports via railroads and carriage. Railroads option could be ideal, but delivering could take from a couple hours to a couple days, which becomes an obstacle when various news companies compete to publish up to date news stories to gather more of the publics attention. Therefore, the term of reporters and reporting news becomes relevant for the first time where news companies disregarded highly opinionated pieces and focused on the objective takes of certain stories. With this new objective perspective in reporting brought about the denial of revealing a reporters source to their material. This allows for some privacy and protection to the source and guarantees some freedom to their right of free speech. As a result, we see the coming of a new age in news reporting and the beginning of discussions regarding freedom of speech and the press. Overall, the development of telegraph systems and telegraphy during the American Civil War performed a major role as a syndicate for technological and social change throughout American society. The desire for fast and reliable communication networks revolutionized military strategy and the governments role in warfare. The reach that telegraphs are able to extend to allows for the widespread of news and information across the nation, keeping citizens informed and updated on important events around the United States. The beginnings of regulatory practices on national systems lead to future endeavors for the establishment of the Federal Communications Commission and the limitations of free speech and freedom of the press. And most importantly, telegraphy exemplifies the impact that electricity can have on the American society and the unique and vast possibilities that electricity can provide to light up the globe.